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STATS AND STUDIES

Psychological
Bulletin

Abstracts
September 2000, Volume 126, Number 5

Sex Differences in Aggression Between Heterosexual Partners:

A Meta-Analytic Review

John Archer
University of Central Lancashire

Meta-analyses of sex differences in physical aggression to heterosexual partners and in its physical consequences are reported. Women were slightly more likely (d = -.05) than men to use one or more act of physical aggression and to use such acts more frequently. Men were more likely (d = .15) to inflict an injury, and overall, 62% of those injured by a partner were women. The findings partially support previous claims that different methods of measurement produce conflicting results, but there was also evidence that the sample was an important moderator of effect size. Continuous models showed that younger aged dating samples and a lower proportion of physically aggressive males predicted effect sizes in the female direction. Analyses were limited by the available database, which is biased toward young dating samples in the United States. Wider variations are discussed in terms of two conflicting norms about physical aggression to partners that operate to different degrees in different cultures.

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Violence in Close Relationships—Development of a Research Area: Comment on Archer (2000)

Irene Hanson Frieze
University of Pittsburgh

A brief history of empirical research on violence in close relationships is presented. Assumptions of and conclusions made by feminist researchers about the problems of battered wives are reviewed. It is argued that their focus on marital violence as a form of aggression against women by men and their concern for severely beaten wives may have caused them to ignore high levels of female violence in marriage and dating. J. Archer's (2000) meta-analysis of studies of marital and dating violence showed that both sexes display violence in these relationships, although women are more likely to be injured. An expansion of Archer's definition of heterosexual violence (or violence in close relationships) to include sexual aggression and stalking is suggested. Reasons for relatively high levels of female violence in close relationships relative to violence toward strangers are briefly discussed. It is argued that more attention needs to be given to male victims of violence from their partners.

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Are Women Really More Aggressive Than Men in Intimate Relationships? Comment on Archer (2000)

K. Daniel O'Leary
State University of New York at Stony Brook

J. Archer's (2000) conclusion that women engage in slightly more physical aggression than men in intimate relationships but sustain more injuries is reasonable in representative samples. However, his conclusions will provoke negative reactions because they do not fit with the data and belief that men are generally more aggressive than women. In addition, they are incompatible with observations of professionals who serve battered women. Basically, the meta-analytic conclusion about aggression cannot be generalized to samples of physically abusive men and their partners. Nonetheless, the studies reviewed by Archer provide convincing data that physical aggression by women must be taken seriously if there is a sincere desire to prevent partner abuse.

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Intimate Partner Aggression—What Have We Learned? Comment on Archer (2000)

Jacquelyn W. White and Paige Hall Smith
University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Mary P. Koss and A. J. Figueredo
University of Arizona

This commentary on J. Archer (2000) identifies limitations at the level of the primary data, the formal meta-analysis, and the interpretations of the results. Highlighted are concerns with the conceptual dichotomy that is the foundation of the analysis, how aggression was conceptualized and defined, and the methodological problems in the studies included in the database that were not neutralized by the meta-analysis. These include inadequate measurement of contextual factors and injury outcomes, scaling issues, and sampling concerns. The authors question the degree to which the field is advanced by this meta-analysis when the results are placed in the context of these limitations. Following American Association for the Advancement of Science directives (I. Lerch, 1999), the authors believe that inadequate attention was paid to the policy implications of the conclusions raising the potential to undermine societal efforts to eradicate violence against women.

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Sex Differences in Physical Aggression to Partners: A Reply to Frieze (2000), O'Leary (2000), and White, Smith, Koss, and Figueredo (2000)

John Archer
University of Central Lancashire

The following points are made in reply to critical comments on the author's meta-analysis of partner physical aggression (J. Archer, 2000): (a) The theoretical dichotomy used in the review is one clearly identifiable in published articles, and the distinction between acts (aggression) and consequences (violence) is clearer than alternative definitions involving victims' perceptions; (b) despite the database containing many samples of U.S. students, there were sufficient other samples to draw meaningful conclusions; (c) the Conflict Tactics Scale may be limited, but in contrast to suggested alternatives, it involves clearly defined categories; (d) sexual aggression, although forming an important part of partner violence, cannot legitimately be aggregated with nonsexual physical aggression; and (e) there is a marked contrast between sex differences in physical aggression toward partners and toward same-sex opponents.

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Gender Differences in Moral Orientation: A Meta-Analysis

Sara Jaffee and Janet Shibley Hyde
University of Wisconsin—Madison

C. Gilligan's (1982) critique of L. Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning and her assertion that two modes of moral reasoning (justice and care) exist have been the subject of debate within the field of psychology for more than 15 years. This meta-analysis was conducted to review quantitatively the work on gender differences in moral orientation. The meta-analysis revealed small differences in the care orientation favoring females (d = -.28) and small differences in the justice orientation favoring males (d = .19). Together, the moderator variables accounted for 16% of the variance in the effect sizes for care reasoning and 17% of the variance in the effect sizes for justice reasoning. These findings do not offer strong support for the claim that the care orientation is used predominantly by women and that the justice orientation is used predominantly by men.

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Maternal Versus Non-maternal Care and Seven Domains of Children's Development

Osnat Erel, Yael Oberman, and Nurit Yirmiya
Hebrew University of Jerusalem

A series of meta-analyses was conducted on findings from 59 studies to examine the linkage between maternal versus non-maternal care, 7 indices of child behavior, and 10 potential moderators. Results indicate that children receiving non-maternal care do not differ from children receiving maternal care on any of the 7 indices. Year of publication and psychometrics of outcome index were found to moderate the linkage between maternal versus non-maternal care and attachment classification and between maternal versus non-maternal care and child adjustment, respectively. Examination of the simultaneous impact of extent of care and age of entry on attachment behaviors revealed the moderating impact of the latter. Although it cannot be concluded that non-maternal care has no impact on children, most of the analyses suggest that in and of itself, or in interaction with one factor at a time, non-maternal care does not affect child development.

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Getting a Life: The Emergence of the Life Story in Adolescence

Tilmann Habermas and Susan Bluck
Max Planck Institute for Human Development

In the life story, autobiographical remembering and self-understanding are combined to create a coherent account of one's past. A gap is demonstrated between developmental research on the story-organization of autobiographical remembering of events in childhood and of life narratives in adulthood. This gap is bridged by substantiating D. P. McAdams's (1985) claim that the life story develops in adolescence. Two manifestations of the life story, life narratives and autobiographical reasoning, are delineated in terms of 4 types of global coherence (temporal, biographical, causal, and thematic). A review of research shows that the cognitive tools necessary for constructing global coherence in a life story and the social–motivational demands to construct a life story develop during adolescence. The authors delineate the implications of the life story framework for other research areas such as coping, attachment, psychotherapeutic process, and the organization of autobiographical memory.

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Simplicity Versus Likelihood in Visual Perception: From Surprisals to Precisals

Peter A. van der Helm
University of Nijmegen

The likelihood principle states that the visual system prefers the most likely interpretation of a stimulus, whereas the simplicity principle states that it prefers the most simple interpretation. This study investigates how close these seemingly very different principles are by combining findings from classical, algorithmic, and structural information theory. It is argued that, in visual perception, the two principles are perhaps very different with respect to the viewpoint-independent aspects of perception but probably very close with respect to the viewpoint-dependent aspects which, moreover, seem decisive in everyday perception. This implies that either principle may have guided the evolution of visual systems and that the simplicity paradigm may provide perception models with the necessary quantitative specifications of the often plausible but also intuitive ideas provided by the likelihood paradigm.

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